Monday May 21st, 2012

Today and for the next two/three days we are working on the fetal pig digestion. Some key things to remember is to make a cover for the lab and to color every picture. Some materials needed are a fetal pig, dissecting needles, yard, slide, metric ruler, dissecting tray, scalpel, gloves, and scalpel. We first got assigned into groups and each group received a pig. You first have to wash the pig because their are solution on it, so washing it would make it clean. Next you need to measure the pig to determine the age. My groups pig was 30 mm so it was 7 weeks. The longer it is, the older it is. Next you need to determine the sex. This can be done by viewing the urogenital opening. If it's a male then it is just posterior to the umbilical cord on the ventral surface. In females, the opening is beneath the anus. After that you need to cut the end of the umbilical cord. In the umbilical cord you should see a vein and an artery. You need to count the number of toes next. The answer is four. After those, you need to open the abdominal and chest cavities.Before doing any cutting, you need to make sure the pig is tied down with a yard on both the legs and arms. When doing this, you need to cut the flaps off the skin. finally you need to cut the abdomen or digestive system. When doing this you need to cut the skin all the way down to see all the organs. At this point, class will be soon ending so you need to wash the pig under water to make sure the juice goes away as well as clean the pig. Later you need to put in a bag labeled with you name and wash the table as well.

Homework: The pig lab is due Friday

                    Test on fetal pig is on Friday

cross section of the umbilical cord and blood vessel

                    Crossword is due on 6/1

By Jex Philip

Next scribe is Jack Stillman

Friday, May 11, 2012

Friday in class was the first day of unit 12 "Heart to Heart" Circulatory, Respiratory, and Nervous Systems.

First in class our quizzes that we made were returned. Then after having our quizzes returned we started our notes packet for this unit. 

Purpose of the Circulatory System 

              - materials are exchanged  and diffused such as O2 from lungs -> blood -> tissue and

                                                                                           CO2 from tissue -> blood -> lungs

              - serves as a long-distance internal transport system

Circulatory Systems

                 Open circulatory system                    vs                       Closed Circulatory system

        - fluid is pumped through open ended                                     - blood is restricted to vessels and is             vessels and flows among cells                                              different  from intestinal fluid

        - invertebrates, arthropods, mollusks                                      - vertebrates, earthworms, octopus

Hearts- comparative anatomy

Fish                        Amphibian                     Reptile                            Bird/ Mammal

- 2 chanbers           - 3 chambers                  - 3-4 chambers               - 4 chambers

- single loop            - double loop                 - double loop                   - double loop

- no septum            - no septum                    - partial septum               - septum

cardiovascular system- heart and blood vessels

Human double loop circulatory system

1. pulmonary- carries blood between heart and lungs
2. Systemic- carries blood between heart and rest of body

Human Heart

Atria- heart chamber that receives blood

        - is thin walled because it only pumps blood to ventricle

Ventricle- heart chamber that pumps blood away from heart to body and back

        - therefore thick walled

 Valves- prevent back flow of blood

4 chambers = O2 rich blood and O2 poor blood separate

Blood pathway!

• right ventricle to lungs (O2 poor) -> pulmonary (semi-lunar valve) ->
• pulmonary arteries ->
• capillaries O2 diffuses into blood and CO2 diffuses out of blood ->
• pulmonary veins ->
• Left Atrium (O2 rich) -> Bicuspid valve/ mitral valve ->
• Left ventricle ->Aortic valve (semi-lunar valve) ->
• Aorta (largest blood vessel in body) ->
• Capillaries O2 diffuses into tissues, CO2 diffuses out of tissues ->
• Superior and inferior vena cava ->
• R. atrium ->Tricuspid valve -> back to top

Cardiac Cycle

-cardiac cycle- rhythmic contraction (Diastole) and relaxation (Systole) of heart

- a healthy heart rate for an adult is 60-80 beats per minute

- blood moving from the atria to ventricle is the 'ba-dum' sound of the heart

- heart murmur = heart defect 

- EKG (electrocardiogram)- uses electrodes to record activity of the heart and can detect the electrical impulses produced by a pacemaker

Controlling the heart rate

- Pacemaker- sets the tempo of the heart beat

- Av (atrioventricular node) delays contracting by 0.1 seconds to ensure atria is emptied completely

- increasing heart rate

                - epinepherine (aderenaline)- hormone released during stress, when we were approached by an animal or threat, adrenaline was released to either aid you in running away farther from threat or aid you in fighting off the threat

                - caffeine

                - exercise

note: higher heart rate = more oxygen to muscles

Notes: 

• remember, when looking down at a diagram, you are looking at a patient therefore left and right are switched ex: heart is on the right side of a diagram
• know the pathway of blood inside and out, quiz coming soon (Ms. Andrews said something about a tuesday..?)
• oxygenated blood is red, O2 deficient is blue
• looking back at the unit "The Diversity of Life" might be helpful

Homework: notes, read chapter 23 pg 503-514, try to finish UP 13 (hope the picture below helps if you're stuck)

Next Scribe: Yvette :)

May 5

Today we wrapped up the "what happens to the food you eat" unit before the TEST TOMORROW.

First, we took each others quizzes and graded them based on content, appearance, and correctness. It was good review for the test and a reminder of what to study, so if you weren't there, be sure to look through notes and practice questions extra carefully!

After that, we got back our digestion worksheets. If you have any questions regarding the answers, check the table below. (By the way, the intestinal glands make the small intestine enzymes, the large intestine  absorbs vitamin K).

Enzyme/ Substance	Organ(s)	Works on…	Result
Salivary Amylase	1. Salivary glands 2. Oral cavity/ mouth	Starch	Maltose
Pepsin	Stomach	Proteins	Amino Acids
Trypsin	Pancreas	Proteins	Amino Acids
Peptidase	Small Intestine	Proteins	Amino Acids
Maltase	Small Intestine	Maltose	Glucose
Sucrase	Small Intestine	Sucrose	1. Glucose 2. Fructose
Rennin	Stomach	Milk proteins	Coagulates
Lipase	Pancreas	Fat	1. Glycerol 2. Amino Acids
Pancreatic Amylase	Pancreas	Starch	Simple sugars
Lactase	Small Intestine	Lactose	1. Glucose 2. Galactose
Bile	1. Liver 2. Gall Bladder	Fat	Emulsifies
HCl	Stomach	---------------	Function: 1. Activates pepsin 2. Kills bacteria

                                                and here our our bffs the reagents
We also got our frog labs back.

Then, we checked the answers for our food lab. The results are as follows. Use your creativity for the analysis questions.

	Starch	Simple Sugars	Protein	Fat
Carrot Juice	+	+	+	-
Bread	+	-	+	+
Potato	+	-	+	-
Apple Juice	-	+	-	-
Onion	-	+	-	-
Walnut	-	-	+	+
Shredded Cheese	-	+	+	+
Cream Cheese	-	+	+	+
Honey	-	+	-	-
Gelatin	-	+	+	-

The last thing we did was check the second half of the practice quiz we took a couple days ago.

1.       Positive

2.       Negative

3.       C

4.       D

5.       C

6.       Reabsorption

7.       Small intestine, Pancreas

8.       C

9.       B

10.    Bile, lipase

11.    Vegetarians need to be sure to get enough protein, 8 essential amino acids, iron

Thats it! HW: STUDY, have your packet ready tomorrow. Good luck!:)----->

 Next scriber: Vinise!!!! (neigh)

May 8th, 2012

Today in class: For the entire period, we worked on the What Nutrients are in Foods? lab (which is a separate packet from our regular unit packet). Mrs. Andrews also collected our "Design a Quiz" projects.

As far as homework goes: ~ Finish the nutrient lab that we worked on in class today
                                             ~ Work on review packets (TEST this thursday)

NEXT SCRIBE: Emily

As you probably all know, the purpose of the Nutrient lab was to test different foods (about 10 of them) for the presence of macromolecules (particularly starch, simple sugars, protein, and fats or lipids).  Because of the many different parts to this lab, your group of four (which were predetermined) had to divide up the work, so one person would find the results for each test, all working at the same time.  At the end of the period, the individual groups met with each other and exchanged data from each test.

In part 1 of the lab, your job was to set up the control for the various experiments.  The iodine test was first, where you observed the color change when with the mixtures starch and water, water and Lugol's iodine, and starch, water, ad Lugol's iodine all together.  If the mixture turned DARK PURPLE, that would be an indication that simple or complex starches were present (as it should have happened with the mixture of all three substances in this first experiment--the rest of the tests should have provided results that indicated there was no starch present).

To test for simple sugars, you had four different test tubes, two contained the mixture of glucose and Benedict's solution, and two contained the mixture of water and Benedict's solution.  One of each mixture was to be heated, and the other two were just supposed to be mixed together and observed.  Every one of the test tubes should have provided you with a negative result EXCEPT the test tube that had glucose and Benedict's solution that was heated--the color of that particular mixture should have been red, testing positive for glucose.

Next, you had to test for proteins.  The three test tubes in this experiment had the mixtures egg albumen, egg albumen and Biuret reagent, and water and Biuret reagent.  If the solution turned PURPLE, then this was an indicator for the presence of protein (the rest should have had negative results).


Lastly, you had to test for lipids.  One square of an unglazed brown paper bag should have been labeled "oil" and the second, "water."  You then had to wait until each substance evaporated to see whether or not the paper was translucent (light can go through, but one cannot see a clear image through the translucent substance)--if it was, lipids were present.  If not, than there were no lipids in the substance (distilled water tested negative, the oil tested positive).


After all of these "control tests," we had to perform the same experiments to test foods for each of the four different macromolecules (9 listed substances, and 1 from home).


To review, Benedict's test is an indicator for simple sugars, Biuret's test is an indicator for proteins, Lugol's iodine solution shows the presence or absence of starches, and an unglazed paper bag can be used to test for lipid (fats).


Think about this:


Which of the four macromolecules from the lab could be present in this chicken dinner?

This is basically what we did in the lab today--just think about what is in the food we eat and how the digestive system breaks it down/absorbs its nutrients! :)

May 7th, 2012

Today in class we took some practice quizzes and discussed the calorimetry lab.

Homework

• finish calorimetry lab, due tomorrow
• design a quiz, due tomorrow
• study for Tissues, Excretion and Digestion test, Thursday
• make sure you've read the chapters (21 and 22)

NEXT SCRIBE: Emma

Digestion Notes

There are 4 stages of digestion.

• Ingestion: eating food
• Digestion: breaking down the food you eat into small molecules that your body can use
• Absorption: the cells in the lining of the digestive tract take in the molecules and transport them throughout the body using the bloodstream
• Elimination: getting rid of undigested wastes

There are 2 types of digestion.

• Mechanical Digestion: physical processes like chewing and stomach churning
• Chemical Digestion: breaking down food with enzymes
• Hydrolysis: breaking down of polymers into monomers using the atoms from water
• Hydrolases: digestive enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis
• Enzymes: specific molecules that start chemical reactions

The alimentary canal is a fancy name for the digestive tract. It has hollow cativities where food passes through to be digested and absorbed (in red), accessory organs (in blue) and enzymes (in purple). The process of digestion starts in the mouth...

Mouth (oral cavity)

• chewing, lubricates food, swallowing into the pharynx (first part of the throat, before the split between the trachea and esophagus
• attached to the mouth are 3 pairs of salivary glands: release saliva (1 liter a day) and salivary amylase
• salivary amylase: breaks starches into sugars (maltose)

Esophagus

• muscular tube, uses muscle contractions called peristalsis to push food into the stomach
• no enzymes

Stomach

• stores food for 2 to 6 hours, can hold 2 liters of food and water
• muscular, churns food and gastric acid into a mixture called acid chyme
• contains gastric juice: pH of .8 to 2 (VERY acidic), hydrochloric acid (HCl) that kills bacteria and activates pepsin, pepsin: breaks proteins into amino acids, rennin: breaks down milk proteins
• stomach lining coated in mucus to protect itself from gastric juice, replaced every 2 to 3 days
• top of the stomach is closed off by the cardiac sphincter (esophageal sphincter in the picture) and the end of the stomach is closed off by the pyloric sphincter
• sphincter: muscular ring that contricts a part of the body until materials need to exit or enter

Liver

• produces bile: emulsifies fats, breaking big fat droplets into little fat droplets so they are accessible to enzymes
• bile is stored, concentrated and released by the neighboring gall bladder
• bile is secreted into the duodenum

Pancreas

• pancreatic juice: contains trypsin, lipase and amylase, neutralizes stomach acids in the duodenum
• trypsin: breaks down proteins into amino acids
• lipase: breaks down fats (lipids) into glycerol and fructose
• pancreatic amylase: breaks down starches into sugars (maltose)
• pancreatice juice is secreted into the duodenum

Small Intestine

• 2.5 centimeters wide, 6 meters long
• duodenum: first part of the small intestine, mixes pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice, 90% of digestion
• peptidase: breaks down proteins into amino acids
• maltase: breaks down maltose (disaccharide) into 2 glucose molecules (monosaccharide)
• sucrase: breaks down sucrose (disaccharide) into glucose (monosaccharide) and fructose (monosaccharide)
• lactase: breaks down lactose (disaccharide) into glucose (monosaccharide) and galacatose (monosaccharide)
• small intestine completes digestion and does most of the aborption
• villi: tiny projections on the lining of the intestine, increase surface area for absorption, absorbs nutrients and passes them into the sorrounding capillaries

Large Intestine

• 5 centimeters wide
• colon: majority of large intestine, absorbs water and excess salts
• appendix: small projection where the small and large intestines meet, no purpose in humans, possible function: to store extra "good" bacteria that the digestive system needs?
• rectum: end of the large intestine, stores wastes (feces)
• anus: final sphincter fo the digestive system

Pictures
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/cellular-microscopic/cell2.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouth
http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/stomach_000329.htm
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/pancreatitis/article_em.htm
http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/IDS_106_LowerGI/Lower%20GI/mainpages/smallintestine.htm

Wednesday March 21, 2012

Hi everybody!

Today we started out doing our Fast Plants lab (if you weren't here, get the data from your partner). After that, we worked in the Science Lab for the rest of class. First, we took Chapter 29 notes (and finished our notes packet), and then we just worked on our Wildland project. Here are the Chapter 29 notes (know the words in green):

• Sap is a watery solution that moves through the vascular system (since it is sugar, it moves through the phloem)


• Xylem - carries water and nutreients from the roots to the leaves and stems


• Phloem - transports sugar already made (like sap) from leaves to other parts of plants


• Plants get carbon dioxide from the air (through the stomata), minerals and water from the soil (through root hairs), and oxygen from the soil (through stomata)


• Remember that all minerals that enter a plant root are dissolved in water (it goes through the epidermis and cortex of the root, through the plasma membrane of root cells, and into the xylem)


• Mycorrhiza (fungi) help in absorption


• Macronutrients - needed in large amounts (carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium)


• Micronutrients - needed in extremely small amounts (iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, boron, nickel - mainly components of enzymes)


• Deficiencies - quality of soil affects our own nutrition


• 3 types of soil bacteria:


• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria - converts nitrogen in air to ammonium


• Ammonifying bacteria - adds ammonium by decomposing organic matter


• Nitrifying bacteria - converts soil ammonium to nitrate - plants take this up


• Legumes (soybeans, clover, peas, alfalfa) have root nodules (contain nitrogen fixing bacteria called Rhizobium)


• Symbiotic relationship - bacteria have a place to live and receive carbohydrates/organics from plant. Plants get ammonium ions released into soil

• Transport of Water:


• Pulled up plant through transpiration (loss of water vapor from plant) through the stomata


• Cohesion - water molecules stick together, are pulled up together


• Adhesion - water molecules adhere (stick) to cellulose molecules in walls of xylem cells


• Molecules of water break off from the top of the "string" as they leave the leaf. String is kept tense and pulled upward as long as transpiration continues


• No energy expenditure by plant


• Called: adhesion-cohesion-transpiration mechanism


• Transpiration - greatest on sunny, warm, dry, and windy days


• Unless rehydrated, plant could eventually die


• Leaf stomata can help plants adjust transpiration rates - controls opening by changing shape


• Open during day and closed at night, saving water. May close during day if plant is losing water too fast


• The Transport of Sugars:


• Phloem sap moves in various directions in plant


• Phloem moves sugar from a source (leaf) to a sink (root or fruit)


• Plant hormones - control plant growth and development, affect division, elongation, differentiation of cells


• Auxin - produced by apical meristem (at the top), stimulates growth of the shoot, causes cells to elongate


• Cells elongate (more auxin) on dark side of stem, causes stem to bend on opposite side (toward light)

• Requires certain concentrations - too much inhibits stem elongation


• Usually, it inhibits roots (except in high concentrations it can elongate roots)


• Ethylene - a gas which triggers aging responses - fruit ripening, dropping of leaves (when one apple is spoiled, it releases too much ethylene, which spoils the whole bunch)


• Cytokinins - growth regulators, promote cell division in roots, embryos, and fruits, stimulates growth of axillary buds (branches and bushy - why cytokinins are used by growers of Christmas trees)


• Gibberellins - stimulates elongation and cell division in stems, can influence fruit development, used in grapes


• Abscisic Acid - slows growth (ex: seed dormancy, especially during adverse conditions), during drought causes stomata to close during wiliting, preventing further water loss


• Photoperiods - what plants use to detect the time of year; relative lengths of day and night


• 2 groups:


• Long-night plants - chrysanthemums and poinsettias, flower in late summer, fall or winter, when night lengthens (also called short-day plants)


• Short-night plants - lettuce, iris, cereal grains, flower in late spring or early summer, when night are brief (also called long-day plants)


• Some plants are unaffected by photoperiod, like dandelions (night-neutral)

Homework

1. Wildland project (due Tuesday, April 3rd)


2. Study for Chapter 28-29 Quiz - TOMORROW!!


3. EC UP 61-62 and 63-64


4. Study for Unit 9 Test - FRIDAY!!

Next Scribe: Michael