March 13, 2012

Today We:

Measured our plants (if you missed today, get the data from your partner)

Took a quiz on Chapter 16

Completed Chapter 28 Notes

Watched a video on plants in the rainforest

Plant Growth (a bit of review):

Primary growth: lengthening

1. Cell division- mitosis at apical meristem region
2. Elongation- root gows longer
3. Maturation- root hairs develop

At the very end of the meristem ther is a root cap, which protects the area of the meristem going through rapid mitotic growth.

Secondary Growth: thickening

Vascular Cambium: Arranges vasdcular bundles and gives rise to secondary phloem and xylem.

Cork Cambium: Produces cork, which is dead when mature (aka bark) and protects the stem.

How Secondary growth works: To survive, the plant must produce xylem and phloem. Xylem is on the inside of the vascular cambium (closer to the center), and phloem is on the outside. This first set of xylem and phloem is primary xylem and primary phloem. When this vascular tissue becomes old, new tissue must replace it. The vascular cambium makes a second set of vascular tissue, or secondary xylem and secondary phloem, which is now the closest set of tissue to the vascular cambium. The alive, secondary tissue (produced second) pushes the primary xylem further in, and the primary phloem further out. The phloem pushing against the cork causes it to crack, resulting in rough bark.

Why shouldn't we peel bark off trees?: Then, you are ripping off a layer of phloem, the life source for the trees. Basically, you're a tree killer.

Pollinators (vectors) Have a Mutualistic Relationship with Flowers!

Flowers:

1. Pollenation- the chances of fertilization, and the formation of a seed, is greatly increased

2. Seed dispersal- seeds are taken away to colonize new environments with mre resources

Pollinators: They get food!

1. Bees are attracted by scent

2. Birds are attracted by red and pink petals

Homework: Work on the project, read UP 41-54

NEXT: VINISE

Chapter 16 Summary

March 12, 2012
Ch 16, plants, fungi, and the move onto land

Plants are extremely important to all living things on the Earth. It porvides numerous essential things needed for survival, like food for nearly all living things, it exchanges gasses for oxygen, which is needed for us to survive, paper, building materials, shelter clothes, things like rubber, and so on. unfortunately, plants are being wiped out more than ever before in their existence, all because of people. Plants are being killed faster than they can regrow, which could cause a mass extinction worse than any other.
the kingdom of plants are eukaryotic, multicelled, and use photosynthesis as a means of getting food/energy.

vocab
stomata: pores under leaf for gas exchange
cuticle: waxy layer on leaf that help the plant reduce water loss
Lignin: hardens cell wall
In vascular system
Xylem: transports water up stem/roots
Phloem: transports food
Yhe 4 major groups of plant evolution
Bryophytes: mosses
Ferns: vascular system
Gymnosperms (means "naked seed"): coniferous trees, first seed plants
angiosperms: flowering plants

Bryophytes have flagellated spores, and the only one whith gametophytes as the more primarily seen (over sporophytes)

Need damp places to fertilize because still dont have seeds and need to disperse

Moss doesn't have lignin

Ferns

12000 species, usually in tropics or temperate woodlands in the US.

first to have phloem and xylem

still no seed, sperm flagellated, so need damp environment

sporophytes dominant stage

Gymnosperms (naked seed)

have cone seeds, on dry land, can withstand harsh winters

thick cuticles and stomata, has lignin

sporophyte dominant, gametophytes are the cones

has pollen in male cones

wind carries pollen to female cones, not water

female cones contain eggs and ovaries

male cones are smaller, female cones higher on tree to help with the dispersion of seeds

Angiosperms

dominate almost any region on earth

250000 species

supply nearly all food and fibers

better vascular system, more efficient

has flower, caused to be one of the most sucessful types of organisms ever

flower have male (stemen: anther and filament) and female (pistol/carpel: stigma, style, ovary) parts on a flower

extremely diverse, doesn't have to rely on wind or water

has double fertilization: one sperm to egg, one to a polar body which then creates a endosperm that contains a large amount of nutrients used until the plant can photosynthesize

fruit are actually matured ovaries, they help protect and disperse the seeds

Next scribe: whoever kiran said

March 12, 2012

Hi everybody!

Today in class, we started off with measuring our plants (wild-type and rosette). For the rest of class we took notes on Chapter 28. Here are the notes (you should probably know the words in purple):

• Stems - terminal bud is at apex of stem when plant stem is growing in length



• Axillary buds, in angle formed by a leaf and stem, are dormant



• Terminal bud produces hormones inhibiting growth of axillary buds = apical dominance, so plant can grow up to sun



• Axillary buds begin growing and develop into branches under certain conditions



• "Pinching back" is when you cut off the terminal buds, so the axillary buds grow (causing the plant to be bushy)



• 3 kinds of modified stems:



• Runner in a strawberry plant = horizontal stem - new plants emerge from tip of runner = asexual reproduction



• Rhizome of an iris plant = horizontal underground stems = store food, & can bud new plants (where the plant comes up)



• Tubers are rhizomes ending in enlarged structures (potatoes). Eyes of potato are axillary buds, can grow when planted



• Leaves - flat blades (for light collection, move with light) and petioles (join leaves to stems)



• Celery is a big petiole



• Some plants have a multipart cell wall:



• Primary cell wall - laid down first



• Secondary cell wall - deposited between plasma membrane and primary wall, more rigid for support



• Parenchyma cells - most abundant cell, for food storage, photosynthesis, have only primary cell walls



• Collenchyma cells - provide support in growing parts of plant, have only primary cell walls



• Sclerenchyma cells - have thick secondary walls (only type of cell out of these 3 that has secondary walls) with lignin (wood), when mature, most are dead - rigid cells support plants



• 2 plant vascular tissues:



• Xylem - contains water conducting cells - move water & minerals up stem



• Phloem - contains food conducting cells - transport sugars from leaves or storage tissue to other parts of plant



• 3 tissue systems continuous throughout plant:



• Dermal - covers, protects, waxy coating (epidermis - like skin)



• Vascular - xylem and phloem, support, transport



• Ground - bulk of young plant, fills spaces between epidermis and vascular



• Types of ground tissue:



• Cortex - in root, cells store food, take up water & minerals



• Endodermis - selective barrier in cortex (remember endo = inside)



• Pith - fills center of stem in dicots, food storage



• Stomata - in epidermis of leaf and some stems, are tiny pores between guard cells,



• Minimizes water loss, allow gas exchange (should be open on a cool, humid day)



• Mesophyll - ground tissue of a leaf, for gas exchange and photosynthesis, between epidermis and vascular tissue (remember meso = middle)

• Review double fertilization:



• Pollination



• Pollen form 2 sperm



• Sperm travel through a pollen tube to ovule



• Double fertilization occurs: one sperm fertilizes egg forming diploid zygote which becomes the embryo; the other sperm joins to form the triploid central cell, which develops into endosperm, nourishing the embryo



• Seed formation:



• Embryo develops cotyledons (1 in a monocot, 2 in a dicot) - organs that absorb nutrients from endosperm



• Embryo develops into mature seed with tough protective seed coat enclosing endosperm



• Seed becomes dormant (time for seed dispersal, favors survival for good environmental conditions) until seed germinates



• Fruit formation:



• Fruit = mature ovary



• Houses and protects seeds, disperses them from parent



• Seed germination:



• Seed takes up water and expands, ruptures seed coat



• Embryo resumes growth (from dormancy)



• Embryotic root emerges (grows downwards), then shoot; a hook forms near the tip for protection



• True leaves expand from shoot tip and photosynthesize (sorry about the picture below...I know we don't know some of the words in there but the picture is still good!)
  

• Plant growth:



• Have indeterminate growth - continue to grow as long as they live - increases exposure to sunlight



• Finite life span - 3 examples:



• Annuals - mature, reproduce and die in 1 year or growing season



• Biennials - live for 2 years; flower and seed occur during second year



• Perennials - live and reproduce for many years



• Primary growth - lengthening



• Meristem - cells that divide and generate new cells and tissues
  

We stopped on page 15 of the notes...

Homework:

1. Work on your wildland project



2. Chapter 28 study guide due Monday 3/19



3. Study for the Chapter 16 quiz (either tomorrow or Wednesday)

Next scribe: Emily W

February 27, 2012

Hello guys,

So to start things off we turned in the isopod lab that we worked on last week.

We then jumped right into the Starfish dissection lab. First dissection I have ever done that did not smell really bad so if you were not there, you missed out. Hah. Essentially, the idea of the lab was to open up and observe the parts of the starfish and to also improve our dissecting abilities. We even broke open the goggles drawer and popped those on so we knew right away that it was about to get real from there on. The lab was on page 63-66 and was pretty self-explanatory. It listed the parts of the starfish we would observe on the front page of the lab(63) and after reading the descriptions of each piece and their location, finding them was easy. For those of you not there today, I am assuming you will not be given another chance to dissect a starfish so I'll tell you what I got at the very least for each blank.

1. 5 rays

2. rough and hard

3. they have very rough skin

4. hard

5. it has 5 pyloric ceca

6. 5 gonad pairs

7. one

8a. ventral

8b. underneath it

9a. dorsal

9b. on top of it

10a. system for transporting blood

10b. blood

11a. its transportation system for moving water to move and get food as a result

11b. water

12. 5 radial canals

13. one circular canal

14. 5 tube feet

A tip for the first question is the phrase penta radial symmetry. I highly recommend looking this word up as my definition-something that can be divided into 5 sections each with the same internal and external structure-may not do the phrase justice or may not completely make sense to you.

Don't forget to do page 66 (its on the back of the lab)!!!

When we finished the lab we watched a movie about bugs for about ten minutes. To some it up in a sentence: Bugs are everywhere, they are some of the most successful organisms on the planet, and the ones on land are eerily similar to their ancestors in the water.

HW:

Finish the lab (63-66)

Work on Nature Article

U.P. (75-76)

Next scribe is Sean

February 22, 2012

To start things off in class today, we turned in UP pgs. 35-36 and we got UP pg 37 stamped.

The rest of class we finished up the animal notes. Here they are:

The Evolution of Multicellularity (We might of done this before but I can't remember exactly, so I will put them in just in case)

• Animals probably evolved from a colonial, flagellated protist that lived in Precambrian seas.
• By the late Precambrian, animals were already diverse.
• At the beginning of the Cambrian period, animal diversity exploded.
• Over about 10 million years ago, all the major animal body plans existing today evolved.

Early Animals and the Cambrian Explosion

• In the last half-billion years, animal evolution has mainly generated new variations of old "Designs" that originated in the Cambrian Seas
• This "explosion of diversity" in the Cambrian period marked the fossil record as the beginning of the Paleozoic era.
• The "explosion" could be due to increasingly complex predator-prey relationships that led to diverse adaptations for feeding, motility, and protection. (ex: shells or hard exoskeleton evolved vs. earlier soft-bodies.)
• Or, the explosion could be due to variation in how and when, and where genes that control the development of animal form are exposed. (ex: placement of body parts in embryos can produce major differences int he phyla)

Animal Phylogeny

• To reconstruct the evolutionary history of animal phyla, researchers must depend on clues from comparative anatomy and embryology
• This diagram represents one set of hypotheses about evolutionary relationships among nine major animal phyla.

Body Symmetry

• Radial symmetry--animals that are arranged around a central axis. A single cut through the middle of the organism in any direction should produce two equal halves (kind of like a pizza)
• Bilateral symmetry--A single longitudinal cut only in one direction will produce two equal halves.

Body Cavities

• A fluid filled space separating the digestive tract from the outer body wall. (Body cavity=coelom or gut)
• Its fluid cushions the suspended organs to prevent internal injury.
• It enables internal organs to grow and move independently of the outer body wall; makes exercise not harmful to internal organs.
• In soft-bodied animals, it functions as a hydrostatic skeleton against which muscles can work (ex: for burrowing)
• Ex: Flatworms lack a body cavity=acoelomate
• Ex: Roundworms have a body cavity partially lined by mesoderm (middle layer tissue)=pseudocoelomate
• Ex: Earthworms have a body cavity completely lined by mesoderm=coelomate

Details of Embryonic Development

• Of the animals with a true coelom, there are 2 branches:
• Branch 1: mollusks, annelids, arthropods: mouth develops first in embryo=Protosomes
• Branch 2: echinoderms and chordates: anus develops first in embryo=Deuterostomes

Animalia Kingdom- 8 Major Invertebrate Phyla:

1. Porifera
2. Cnidaria
3. Platyhelminthes
4. Nematoda
5. Mollusca
6. Annelida
7. Arthropoda
8. Echinodermata

• Invertebrates, animals w/o backbones, represent more than 95% animal kingdom!!

1. Phylum Porifera--Sponges

• Sponges are sessile (non-moving)
• Sponges are the simplest animals, probably evolved very early from colonial protists.
• Range in height from about 1 cm to 2 meters
• Have no nerves or muscles (This explains why SpongeBob is so weak ;D), and consist of about 9,000 species
• About 100 species lives in fresh water and the rest are marine.
• The body of a sponge resembles a sac perforated with holes.

Sponges Feeding Method:

• Most sponges feed by collecting bacteria from the water which streams through their porous bodies (filter feeding)
• Flagellated cells called choanocytes trap bacteria in mucus and then engulf the food by phagocytosis
• Cells called amoebocytes pick up food from the choanocytes, digest it, and carry nutrients to other cells

2. Phylum Cnidaria--Jellyfish, Sea Anemones, Coral, and Hydras

• Cnidarians show radial symmetry.
• Are carnivores, with cnidocytes (stinging cells) on their tentacles.
• Consist of more than 10,000 mostly marine species
• Have a body plann that is a sac with a central digestive compartment, the gastrovascular cavity. This cavity functions as a mouth and an anus.
• Two body forms: the sessile polyp attaches to a substrate, and the free-floating medusa.

3. Phylum Platyhelminthes--Flat Worms--Tapeworms, Flukes, and Planaria

• Flatworms are the simplest bilateral animals.
• Range from about i mm to 20 m in length.
• Live in marine, freshwater, and damp terrestrial habitats.
• Include many parasitic species including flukes and tapeworms
• Tapeworms have a ribbon-like body which can be up to 20 m long in humans
• Lack a digestive tract, so they absorb partially digested food from the intestines of their host.
• Humans can become infected with tapeworms by eating undercooked food.

4. Phylum Nematoda-Round Worms

• Roundworms get their common name from the cylindrical bodies tapered at both ends.
• Roundworms are among the most diverse and widespread animals.
• Roundworms consist of about 90,000 known species (10x more actually exist!)
• Range in length form 1mm to 1m.
• Live in most aquatic habitats , in wet soil, and as parasites in the body fluids and tissues of plants and animals
• Exhibit a complete digestive tract with a mouth and anus
• Have a body cavity: pseudocoelom
• Humans host at least 50 parasitic species including pinworms, hookworms, and the parasite which causes trichinosis

5. Phylum Annelida--Segmented Worms--Earthworms, Polychaetes, and Leeches

• Annelids are worms with body segmentation, the division of the body along its length into a series of repeated parts.
• Annelids consist of about 15,000 species
• Range in length from 1mm to 3m long
• Live int he sea, most freshwater habitats, and damp soil
• The three major classes of annelids are stated in the title.
• Farmers value the earthworm because they eat their way through the soil, extracting nutrients, tilling the soil, and producing nutrients which improve the texture of the soil
• Polychaetes are marine; crawl or burrow in the seafloor
• Polychaetes have segmented appendages and hard bristles that help the worm move. The appendages also increase the animals surface are for gas exchange and elimination of metabolic wastes
• Leeches include medicine, until the 20th century for blood-letting.
• Leeches are currently used as a source or anticoagulant and to help relieve swelling in reattached fingers and toes

6. Phylum Mollusca-Snails, Slugs, Clams, Octopuses, and Squid

• Mollusks are soft-bodied animals
• Are usually protected by a hard shell (Although slugs, squids, and octopuses have either reduced shells, most of which are internal or none at all.)
• Often feed by using a straplike rasping organ called a radula to scrape up food.
• Consist of about 150,000 species that are primarily marine, although some inhabit fresh water (snails, clams) and some live on land (snails, slugs)
• All Mollusks have a similar body plan with three main parts: a muscular foot, usually used for movement, a visceral mass containing most of the internal organs, and a fold of tissue called the mantle that drapes over the visceral mass, and secretes the shell if one is present.
• There are three major types of mollusks:
• Gastropods which include snails and slugs.
• Bivalves include clams, oysters, and mussels
• Cephalopods which include squids and octopuses

7. Phylum Arthropoda--Crustaceans, Millipedes, Centipedes, and Insects

• Arthropods are named for their jointed appendages
• Number more then a billion billion (1,000,000,000,000,000,000) living individuals
• Include more than 1 billion identified species (two out of three) and are represented in nearly all habitats of the biosphere
• Arthropods are the most successful of all animal phyla as far as species diversity, distribution, and sheer numbers
• Arthropods are the most segmented animals with appendages that have become specialized for a great variety of functios
• Walking
• Feeding
• Sensory reception
• Copulation
• Defense
• The body of an arthropod covered by an exoskeleton
• Must occasionally shed it and secrete a larger one-molting
• Temporarily vulnerable to predators

4 Classes of Arthropods

• Arachnids: include scorpions, spiders, ticks, and mites
• Crustaceans: include crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, and barnacles
• Millipedes: eat decaying plant matter, have 2 pairs of short legs per body segments and Centipedes: paralyze prey (cockroaches & flies) and have one pair of long legs per body segment
• Insects: including bees, grasshoppers, ants, termites, and cockroaches. Outnumber all other forms of life combined

8. Phylum Echinodermata--Spiny Skin--Starfish, Sand Dollars, & Sea Cucumbers

• Echinoderms are named for their spiny skin
• All echinoderms are marine
• Most are sessile or slow moving
• Lack body segments
• Have an endoskeleton constructed from hard plates just beneath the skin.
• Have a water-vascular system, a network of water filled canals that circulate water throughout the echinoderm's body, facilitating gas exchange and waste disposal
• Have tube feet connected to the water-vascular system for movement
• Larvae form=bilateral symmetry
• Adult form=radial symmetry
• Share an evolutionary branch with chordates

That is all for the notes!

HW: Study Animal Notes, Nature due March 2, isopod research (if you want to), earthworm lab tomorrow

Have a good evening and the next scribe is Jack

February 21, 2012

Today, we turned in our Hydra/Planaria lab (and also reviewed the answers to the questions), and we got back pages 15-18 and 11-14, and the Lab #44.

We also completed pages 7-10 in our note packet, all about the protist kingdom--extra info can be found in Chapter 15, pages 311-316 in our textbook. To sum up all the information, with key points as written in our packet:

• Protists are the first eukaryotes to evolve from prokaryote (bacteria) ancestors; they are much more complex than prokaryotes.
• How did eukaryote cells, as well as their membrane-enclosed organelles, evolve?
• 2 theories of these processes:

1. All organelles (except mitochondria and chloroplasts) evolved from inward folds of the plasma membrane of a prokaryotic cell.
2. Endosymbiosis: Largely developed by Lynn Margulis of the University of Massachusetts:

• "Chloroplasts and Mitochondria evolved from small prokaryotes that established residence in other, larger host prokaryotes."
• Mitochondria evolved 1st

• Protists vary in structure and function more than any other group or organism
• MOST are unicellular, but some are colonial or multicellular.
• The four major categories are:

1. Protozoans: They ingest food and thrive in all types of aquatic environments, including wet soil and the watery environment inside animals (parasites).
2. Slime Molds: Resemble fungi in appearance and lifestyle, but are NOT closely related at all... Role=decomposers
3. Unicellular Algae: Photosynthetic protists (have chloroplasts)--they support food chains in freshwater and marine ecosystems.
4. Seaweeds: Large, multicellular marine algae--used for a variety of human foods (for anything from sushi wraps to ice cream!)

Next, we filled out unit packet page 33, "Examining a Phylogenetic Tree", as a class. Lastly, we did a lab on page 35 in our unit packets, in which we classified real organisms (around the classroom--from centipedes to scorpions) based on their appearances into the correct phylum.

The homework for tonight is:

• To finish the "General Classification of Invertebrates" lab (pages 35-38)
• Prep for labs on pages 45-54
• The "Nature" assignment (due 3/2)
• And to read CH 17 if you haven't already!!!
• (It also might be a good idea to read up on pill bugs, just to get a little background knowledge for an upcoming lab)

Next Scribe: Austin

Friday, February 17, 2012

After collecting last night's homework (UP pp. 15-26: your choice), and prepping both labs (#2 and #3, as shown on left) we started working on the labs.

Lab 1: Live Hydra
preface: answering the pre-lab questions
objective: observe how live hydra move around, and how hydra react to certain outside movements.
materials: Slide of preserved budding hydra, living specimens of hydra, conclave slides, microscopes, Dapnia or fish food
procedures: observe the hydra, tap it with a toothpick (record reactions), feed it food (record reactions)

Lab 2: Live Planaria
preface: The flatworm is the freshwater planarian, aka Dugesia.
objective: observe how live flatworms move around, and how hydra react to certain outside movements.
materials: Petri Dish with a flatworm inside, ruler, microscope, pipette
procedures: observe the flatworm, turn it over to see if it is right or left "handed" (record reactions), feed it food and see where it's mouth is located (record reactions)
*We did not do the "Planarian Reproduction Class Demo" listed on page 42.


Homework due 2/21/12





Next Scribe: Emma